Essay - by Cora
Witchcraft in Hertfordshire through the ages
The joy of history, to me, comes when you find it in the landscape and the buildings all around you. Knowing that witchcraft was rife in the county where I live, I decided to base my essay on ‘Witchcraft in Hertfordshire through the ages’. Hertfordshire has been at the centre of witchcraft and pagan history on many occasions. I aim to prove it below. Please note that I have numbered the links and inserted relevant numbers throughout this essay to provide additional reading and evidence my research.
The Founding of Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire is a county in England and was founded in the Norse-Saxon wars of the 9th Century. It is bordered by London, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Essex. Even today it tries hard to retain its historical character and preserve its history [1]. Being born and raised in Hertfordshire you hear a lot about folklore, myths and legends and of course the Witch Trials, the evidence of which is still in existence today.
The Witchcraft Acts
To understand witchcraft in Hertfordshire it is important to understand the Laws of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales at the time. By the end of the 15th century, Pope Innocent VIII had issued a bill against Charmers and Magicians and in 1486 two Dominican inquisitors asserted in a formidable volume, Malleus Maleficarum, that the Devil and his witches were conspiring on a gigantic scale to overthrow the Catholic Church. From this point onwards, witchcraft and heresy were linked together. In 1542 King Henry VIII introduced the first Witchcraft Act [2]. It defined witchcraft as a felony and was punishable by death. King Henry VIII accused Anne Boleyn of being a witch. He tried to find grounds to incriminate her, claiming she had used witchcraft to make him fall in love with her. The monarch also feared she would harm him with poison, a common accusation against witches [3]. The first law was passed a few years after her trial and reflected the growing fear developed and embellished by the ingenuity of theologians and lawyers, regarding the concept of the demonic pact witches had with the devil.
In 1592 ‘An Act against Conjurations, Enchantments and Witchcrafts’ was passed by Elizabeth I. It showed slightly more mercy towards those found guilty of witchcraft demanding that the death penalty was only sentenced where physical harm had been caused. Lesser offences were punishable by a term of imprisonment. The act was amended over the years by further Monarchs until it was finally repealed in 1951 and replaced with the Fraudulent Mediums Act 1951 [4]. The Fraudulent Mediums Act 1951 was replaced in 2008 by new consumer protection regulations following an EU directive targeting unfair sales and marketing practices namely ‘the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008’, you may see this in act today under Psychic adverts as they have to claim 'for entertainment purposes only'. You may well think that the Witchcraft Act 1735 is a long distant memory; but in fact it is still in existence today. It had been introduced into the legal system of Israel during the British Mandate over Palestine. However Israel gained independence before the act was repealed and remains in force today.
Matthew Hopkins: Witch Hunter
With the heightened fear of Witchcraft came the atrocious Witch Trials known elsewhere as the Burning Times. These were a determined campaign to extirpate every trace of witchcraft. Not all countries were affected in the same way or at the same time. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, witches, or people perceived as being witches, were persecuted mercilessly in Britain. During one 18-year period alone, from 1643 to 1661, between three to four thousand people were murdered in the belief that they were witches. In fact, witch-hunting created a new profession, that of ‘Witch Hunter’. One infamous witch hunter was Matthew Hopkins [5]. Matthew Hopkins, a Puritan’s son, mainly worked in Hertfordshire’s neighbouring county of Essex, but he also travelled to surrounding counties. For unknown reasons, Hopkins thankfully never visited Hertfordshire. Hopkins’ work within the County of Essex is brought horrifically to life when you look at the statistics of people accused and tried for witchcraft offences. In Essex 229 people where tried for Witchcraft compared to only 52 in Hertfordshire, 91 in Kent, 54 in Surrey and 17 in Sussex. Matthew Hopkins’ reign of terror only lasted from 1645 till 1646, but in that single year he was responsible for up to 400 people being put to death for witchcraft. He would usually accuse elderly, lonely women of witchcraft - women who had no-one to defend them. In fact, woman accounted for 90% of his victims. Hopkins invented brutal, humiliating methods of torture (even though torture was illegal) in order to obtain confessions. These included devising his own way of ‘swimming’ suspects. Swimming involved tying the suspect’s thumbs to their big toes and dropping them into ponds. If the suspect floated (many of them did as the lungs hold one litre of air, and this is enough to make someone float), they were hung for being a witch. However, those who were terrified, screamed and exhaled air, sank. These people were cleared of Witchcraft but generally drowned anyway. Hopkins made a tidy profit from these trials charging 23 shillings to visit each town, and the same for each witch he discovered. This rate must have been negotiable though as seven woman from Aldborough were hung for a mere £6, but at Stowmarket he made £23. It’s important to note that he didn’t work alone, he had an entourage including his associates John Stearn and Mary Phillps. Hopkins died in 1647 and is buried in the village Church in Mistley. There is a myth that he was himself tried as a witch and drowned. However church records exist of his burial.
Hertfordshire’s Witch Trials
The impact on Hertfordshire during Hopkins reign was smaller than surrounding counties. However, Hertfordshire is a much smaller county than Essex and had the envious bonus that Hopkins avoided the area. Even so, 52 people were found guilty of Witchcraft in Hertfordshire via ridiculous accusations and suspicions which helped to spread rumours and fear throughout the entire county. In Hertfordshire, accusations included murder by witchcraft, causing Illness by witchcraft, bewitching cattle, causing storms, causing butter to fail, and stealing crops by magic. The accusations were more common in rural areas rather than in the towns [6], perhaps because superstitions linger longer in the countryside. Only a few of the accused were actually sentenced to death and the majority of those found guilty were hung. However, those who had been imprisioned often died due to high levels of illnesses. In 1729 a small pox outbreak almost cleared the Hertford Gaol of prisoners due to the rapid death rate [7]. Despite the hunts and trials, the actual Cunning folk were generally popular and rarely prosecuted. The Cunning folk were relied on to help with medical issues and aliments. In fact, of the people found guilty of witchcraft, the majority of these were mainly either poor, old woman or neighbours in dispute.
The last official Witch Trial in England
The last official trial of a witch in England took place in Hertfordshire and concerned a woman called Jane Welham of Walkern, near Stevenage [8] & [9]. The trail took place at Hertford Assizes in 1713. Jane was an elderly woman in her seventies. She lived alone, was poor and fitted the then stereotypical view of witches. A combination of incidents, such as livestock dying after conversations with Jane, led to Sir Henry Chauncy signing a warrant for her arrest. Chauncy (an educated man!) ordered Jane’s body to be searched for witch marks. Four women searched her body for an hour, but failed to find a mark. The next day Jane was ordered to recite the Lord’s Prayer before Reverend Strutt. This went well until she got to ‘Lead us not into Temptation’, at which point she said ‘Lead us not into no Temptation’, thus, to Strutt’s mind, providing him with proof that she served the devil. Sir Henry Chauncy’s son, Arthur, decided to subject Jane to another witch test. He thrust a pin up to its head into Jane’s arm several times but no blood came out only a watery serum.
Finally, a warrant was issued committing Jane to Hertford Gaol to await trial. Her trial took place in Hertford in March 1712 before Sir John Powell. Judge Powell’s sympathies lay with Jane and when one of the witnesses accused her of being able to fly, the judge said ‘there is no law against that!’. In his summary, Judge Powell invited the jury to acquit her. The jury, being made of local superstitious men, found her guilty anyway, leaving Powell no choice but to sentence her to death. However, he ordered a stay of execution pending an appeal. A disturbing fact in this case was that Jane’s key prosecutors were highly educated men and included 3 local clergymen.
Angered at the Judge’s decision not to execute Jane immediately, Francis Bragge, the Vicar of Hitchin (a key member of the prosecution) rushed into print a pamphlet claiming to be ‘A full and Impartial Account’ of the case. In fact, it was an attack on Jane’s character, accusing her of idleness, being a whore, being a thief and one who swore a lot. In conclusion he added: ‘her nearest relations think she deserves to die’. The pamphlet went into five editions, four of them printed within a month. This was the start of the Pamphlet War, with at least nine being written both for and again her.
Sir John Powell had been sceptical of her guilt throughout the trial and subsequently intervened on her behalf and obtain a royal pardon from Queen Anne. Sir John Powell also helped oversee witchcraft being erased as a crime in 1736 via an amendment to the 1732 Witchcraft Act. It was however still too dangerous for Jane to go home again, and she was given shelter first by a Whig landowner, Colonel Plumer, at Gilston, Hertfordshire, and later by Earl and Countess Cowper at Hertingfordbury, near Hertford, where she died and was buried in 1730. Jane’s final wish was that she had a decent burial and her name was cleared. Sadly for Jane, whilst Sarah Cowper (daughter of Sir John Powell) agreed to Jane’s wish while she was alive, she decided, following her death, not to raise such an ugly issue, especially as belief in Witches was still strong. Jane was buried in an unmarked grave in St Marys Churchyard, Hertingfordbury but she was given a sermon by the vicar [10] Unfortunately despite her wish to be disassociated from Witchcraft, she is still known today as the Witch from Walkern.
Whilst my essay concerns Hertfordshire, it is worth mentioning that Scotland was ruled under different law and had the dubious honour of officially putting on trial the last witch, Helen Duncan, who was tried in 1944, a mere 67 years ago! [11]
The Unofficial Witch Trials of Hertfordshire
Whilst the Witchcraft Act of 1732 erased the crime of witchcraft, it was harder to remove country people’s thoughts and beliefs in witches, as shown in the following case in 1751. It all began when the following note was circulated around Tring, Hertfordshire:
Much like Jane Wenham, Ruth Osborn was a poor, old woman on the edge of society. She was often found begging for food from local farmers. Suspicions that she was a witch were aroused when she was turned away from a farm in Gubblecote, near Tring and the farmers’ animals suddenly became sick. Ruth and her husband had been taken to the workhouse when a great mob gathered. The Parish Officers feared for their safety and moved the old couple to the local church thinking they’d be safer there. The mob descended on the workhouse and when they failed to find Ruth and John they started to smash the workhouse up. John Tomkins, the workhouse master, was forced into telling the rioters where the old couple had been taken. The mob then smashed into the church and dragged Ruth and her husband to the local pond. There, the old couple were stripped naked, had their fingers tied to their toes (a Matthew Hopkins technique), and then wrapped in a blanket, before being thrown into the pond. Ruth was held under the water with a stick. She was so frail that she didn’t survive the ordeal of being stripped naked, and when she was thrown back onto the bank, she was found to be dead. Some confusion remains regarding her husband, John. Some accounts say he choked to death having swallowed a great amount of muddy water, but other accounts say he wasn’t as badly treated as his wife and therefore survived.
This image went into print at the time and shows the Tring Ducking.
It says:
‘Good people I beseech you all to take Warning by an unhappy man’s suffering, that you be not deluded into so absurd & wicked a conceit as to believe that there are any such beings upon earth as Witches… I am fully convinced of my former Error and with the sincerity of a dying Man declare that I do not believe there is such a Thing in being as a Witch. And I pray God that none of you thro’ a contrary Persuasion may hereafter be induced to think that you have a Right in any shape to persecute much less endanger the life of a Fellow Creature… So exhorteth you all – the Dying Thomas Colley’
Unfortunately the message appeared to have almost no effect, as the crowd were heard to be muttering and grumbling that it was a hard case to hang a man for destroying an old wicked woman that had done so much mischief by her witchcraft [12] Thomas Colley’s spirit is said to still haunt the area today in the form of a large black dog.
Changing attitudes?
The attitude toward witches in Hertfordshire changed painfully slowly over the years. Any old poor beggar women were instantly branded as witches. Local reputed witches include Rosina Jane Massey [13], and Sally Rainbow [14], (the ‘Witchcraft’ referred to in link 13 is the name of a cottage and is named afer Rosina), both were old poor woman. Sally Rainbow was homeless and lived in a chalk dell in Bramfield Woods, Tewin (one of my favourite dog walks). Sally was much feared and farmers would leave food at the edge of her dell so that she left them alone. It is said that Dick Turpin stayed in Sally’s Dell knowing that people feared her so much that they would not look for him there. I really feel that local people felt powerless when crimes involving witchcraft were no longer illegal. Sally Rainbow’s Dell remains today a place of mystery and many paranormal investigations take place there, for it has gained a reputation for being haunted (though these claims only appear in snippets as in link [15]), not only by Sally but the woods were also the scene of the murder of Walter Clibbon a Hertford Pie man by day, notorious and violent Highway man by night. Although not a witch, I think a little detour here to discover the story of Walter Clibbon helps back up the history and mentally of the time [16]. Such was the superstition at the time, the locals didn’t want Walter’s soul to roam free, so his body was dragged back to the site where he had been shot and a stake was driven through his heart. The stake still stands today (though it has been replaced since the original one went rotten with age) and is now known as ‘Clibbon’s Post’.
Witch Charms
With the lack of protection against witches, people sought charms and protections to ward off witchcraft. Hertfordshire Puddingstone was credited in local folklore of having several supernatural powers, including being a protective charm against witchcraft. In Aldenham, a woman reputed to be a witch, had puddingstone placed on top of her coffin to prevent her from escaping after her burial [17]. Over the years many buildings have been renovated and many charms against witches have been discovered. Knives and animals appear to be the most common. Many walled up dried cats and rats have been discovered. Also, a whole donkey was buried in a barn. Horse skulls have also been uncovered as in link [18] found on the Essex/Hertfordshire border.
Revival of Witchcraft in Hertfordshire
In the 1940’s, the birth of the first line of Gardnerian Witches occurred in Bricket Wood, Hertfordshire and became known as the Hertfordshire Coven. This saw a full turn around in the history of Witchcraft in Hertfordshire. The coven was formed after Gerald Gardner bought the Fiveacres Country Club, a Naturist club in the village of Bricket Wood, Hertfordshire, and members met within the club's grounds. It played a significant part in the history of Wicca. Many important and influential figures in Wicca were members of this coven, including Dafo, Doreen Valiente, Jack Bracelin, Frederic Lamond, Dayonis, Eleanor Bone and Lois Bourne. The coven is still active today, though it maintains secrecy and its history is only known up until the 1970s. [19]
Hertfordshire’s witchcraft in the present day
Living with local names such as Witchford, Hanging Wood, Witchcraft Hill, Witches Acre, Witches Hollow, Witches Moon, Witchwood and Gallows Hill, it’s easy to see the impact witches and the craft have had on the area, even today. Many villages still have their ‘ducking ponds’ and up until a few years ago many still had remnants of rotten wooden planks showing where ducking stools had been. The word ‘witch’ is still a word met with much fear and suspicion in Hertfordshire and the surrounding counties. In the 1960’s, black magic rituals made the headlines in the neighbouring county of Bedfordshire and the fear of witches was brought back. An incident of Black Mass occurred in a long abandoned church, St Mary Old Church, Clophill, where the graves where dug up and the bones used in satanic ritual, not once, but twice. The church still stands today, though the graves have had their headstones removed and lined up around the edges of the church. Tonnes of soil were also brought and the graves were buried under a further 12ft of soil. The church has unfortunately earned the name ‘The Black Magic Church’ and remained an active site for teenagers who wanted to be spooked at night. It certainly has an eerie feeling about it. It’s currently being turned into a Hostel for Walkers! [20]
Summary
In summary, it is fair to say that Hertfordshire has witnessed and been at the hub of witchcraft’s history over the last one-thousand years. The witch trials of the past are still there to be found in place names, walled up charms and the record books. Hertfordshire’s history shows that it wasn’t always the Witches who were the criminals and many people justified barbaric acts by stating the bible allowed it. Witches were treated as supernatural beings. When tortured, they weren’t done so as old woman, but that of demons and spirits. Ironically the real cunning people lived fairly openly and were held in high esteem. The hedgerows of Hertfordshire still grow many plants for a cunning person’s stock cupboard, from mugwort to hazel, sloes, blackberries, burdock, colt’s foot, chamomile, common fumitory, etc. In Hertfordshire we still stand stubbornly with one foot in the past refusing to let go of our history. I swear, if you visit Hertfordshire and stand for a while in one of our (sadly few remaining) ancient woodlands, you’ll still feel the spirit of the horned god. Witchcraft and Paganism still isn’t accepted as the norm here. However, you will find many open moots and meetings of like minded folk. You can attend one of our ancient festivals such as the May Day where we dance round the May Pole, or visit the Scarecrow Festivals. You only have to walk down one of our ancient streets to see upturned horseshoes above front doors keeping luck in. Hertfordshire is steeped in history of the craft and is more the richer for it.
I’d like to dedicate this essay to the memory of those killed in Hertfordshire having been found guilty of Witchcraft. This list contains those who full records exist, but many more names are missing from this list.
1590 Joan White of Hertfordshire
1595 Hellen Calles of Hertfordshire
1595 John Newell of Hertfordshire
1595 Joane Newell of Hertfordshire
1606 Johanna Harrison of Hertfordshire
1606 'Miss' Harrison of Hertfordshire
1649 Mary Bychance of Hertfordshire
1649 Elizabeth Knott of Hertfordshire
1649 John Lamen of Hertfordshire
1649 Joan Lamen of Hertfordshire
1649 Mary Lamen of Hertfordshire
1649 John Palmer of Hertfordshire
1649 'Widow' Palmer of Hertfordshire
1649 John Salmon of Hertfordshire
1649 Joseph Salmon of Hertfordshire
1649 Judeth Salmon of Hertfordshire
1649 Ann Smith of Hertfordshire
1649 Sarah Smith of Hertfordshire
1659 'Goodwife' Free of Hertfordshire
1661 Frances Bailey of Hertfordshire
1712 Jane Wenham of Hertfordshire
1751 Ruth and John Osborn of Hertfordshire
The End.
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hertfordshire
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witchcraft_Acts
[3] http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/eliza ... itches.htm
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraudulent ... s_Act_1951
[5] http://www.witchtrials.co.uk/matthew.html
[6] http://www.hertsmemories.org.uk/page_id ... p169p.aspx - Witchcraft in Hertfordshire
[7] http://www.hertford.net/history/gaol.asp
[8] http://www.hertsmemories.org.uk/page_id ... p169p.aspx - Jane Wenham
[9} http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wenham
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertingfordbury
[11] http://www.helenduncan.org.uk/
[12] http://www.hertsmemories.org.uk/page_id ... p169p.aspx
[13] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/domesday/d ... 000/page/6
[14] http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk ... -gaddesden
[15] http://u3asiteb.org.uk/u3asites/code/u3 ... &page=7758
[16] http://www.ourhertfordandware.org.uk/pa ... ath__.aspx
[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire_puddingstone
[18] http://www.andrewcollins.com/page/articles/manuden.htm
[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bricket_Wood_coven
[20] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marys_Church,_Clophill
So proud of you Cora and All the other students of the program. Your all terrific!!
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